Collation and Publication of Tripitaka by the Central Government and Tibetan Local Government Throughout the Ages

　　he Central Government and Tibetan local rulers throughout the ages attached great importance to the collation, compilation and publication of the Tibetan language Tripitaka. Buddhism found its way into the Tubo Kingdom from the Central Plains and India during the reign of Tubo King Songtsan Gambo in the 7th century and was given great attention by the royal family. Many Buddhist scriptures were translated into the Tibetan language from Sanskrit, Chinese and Yuzhen languages by Tibetan, Chinese and Indian eminent monks and scholars. Several volumes of Gangyur and Dangyur were translated and the compilation work for easy reading was carried out in the reign of Tubo King Trisong Detsan. In the reign of Tubo King Tri Rabajun, a three-article rule was worked out for translators to follow. While doing translation, the translators worked out the catalogue of the Tripitaka. Up to the 8th century, the master translators Gawa Beze and Kong Lhuye Wangbo compiled the Daingar Catelogue for Tripitaka (which was so named because it was kept in the Daingar Phodrang in Shannan) and the Qenpo Catalogue for Tripitaka (which was so named because it was kept in the Samye Qenpo Palace in Shannan). From 1308 to 1311 when the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) reigned in China, Jamyang, a great scholar trusted by the Yuan emperor, entrusted Lose Yexei, Soinam Oise and Jamrab Qamqoiben to compile Gangyur on the basis of translated Buddhist classics. They also compiled the Sunlight of the Catalogue of Gangyur. These works were placed in the Natang Monastery in Xigaze. Before long, Buton Rinchengdrub (1290-1364) moved the Dangyur from the Natang Monastery to the Xhalu Monastery also in Xigaze, where he collated and classified it again, deleting redundancies and adding missing words, before making the catalogue.

　　Those who also made efforts to collate and compile Buddhist classics at the time of Buton Rinchengdrub included famous lamas and scholars of the Sagya, Kongtang, Caigongtang, Daglung, Zetang, Gonggar, Dainsati and Curpu monasteries.

　　During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), Emperor Yongle sent in 1409 and 1414 emissaries to Tibet to invite Zongkapa, the founder of the Yellow Sect of Tibetan Buddhism, to the capital city of Nanjing. In 1409, as Zongkapa was busy preparing the next year's Grand Summons Ceremony, he sent his disciple Shakya Yeshes in his place. In 1414, as Zongkapa had just recovered from illness, he again sent Shakya Yeshes to Nanjing in his place. Shakya Yeshes, who was granted the title of Grand State Tutor in 1415, returned to Tibet in 1419 for the building of the Sera Monastery. In 1434 or the 9th year of Ming Dynasty Emperor Xuande, Shakya Yeshes came to the new capital city of Beijing for the third time. Emperor Cuande granted him the honorific title of the Great Mercy Prince of Dharma. During his stay in Beijing, he lived in the Fayuan Temple to both explain Buddhist scripture to the emperor and cure his illness. Earlier, in 1410 or the 8th year of the Yongle period, Emperor Zhudi dispatched special envoys to Tibet. The envoy brought a handwritten Tibetan Tripitaka to the capital city of Nanjing. The Ming emperor ordered the carving of the wooden blocks for printing Buddhist work. Emperor Zhudi wrote a preface for the Tibetan Tripitaka thus printed, and sent them to principal religious and political leaders in Tibet. These were the first Tibetan Tripitaka printed in China using woodblocks. Emperor Yongle gave copies to Sagyapa, Garmapa, Zongkapa and Shakya Yeshes. The copy of Gangyur Emperor Yongle granted to Shakya Yeshes has the Chinese and Tibetan titles in gold color. It is still kept intact in the Sera Monastery in Lhasa.

　　One copy of 225-volume Dangyur handwritten on high quality paper using ink prepared with eight treasures -- gold, turquoise, silver, coral, tin, copper, white conch and pearl powder--is preserved in Lhasa's Potala Palace. Seven lines to each page, it is a unique Buddhist scripture virtually unmatched in the world. Unfortunately, a fire in 1984 destroyed almost half of the volumes. The Cultural Relics Office of the Potala Palace decided to rewrite about 20,000 burned pages in 82 volumes using replicas of the original ink and paper size (60 cm long and 20 cm wide). Seven lines are to be written on both sides, with each line written with different color ink.

　　Following the example of Emperor Yongle, emperors of both Ming and Qing dynasties (such as Ming Emperor Wanli, Qing Emperor Kangxi, Qing Emperor Yongzheng and Qing Emperor Qianlong) regarded the printing of the Tibetan Tripitaka as an important aspect of their administration of Tibet. They established Buddhist scripture printing houses and published the Wanli edition and Beijing edition of Tibetan Tripitaka.

　　The making of a copper mould in Nanjing showed that the Ming Dynasty emperors not only paid great attention to the Tibetan Buddhist classics, but also brought the Tibetan printing industry to a new stage. From then on, woodblock printing greatly developed and sutra printing houses were set up at various places. The most famous sutra printing houses included the Natang, Dege, Xoibarkang and Zho'nyin, as well as small printing presses established at all the major monasteries. All of them printed and preserved the Tripitaka. Between the end of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), Natang, Litang, Zho'nyin, Dege and Kulun editions of Tripitaka were found not only in Tibet but also in the Tibetan-inhabited areas in Yunnan, Gansu and Sichuan. By the order of the 13th Dalai Lama, Xerab Gyamco took in charge of the printing of the Tripitaka in Lhasa between the 1920s-1930s, the peak period of its printing. Statistics show 14 editions of Gangyur were printed officially or privately through the ages, and kept both at home and abroad, while there were four editions of Dangyur. In addition, the handwritten Tibetan Tripitaka from the Yuan to the Qing dynasties were found in Tibet and Gansu and Qinghai provinces.

　　Upon the order of the 6th Dalai Lama Cangyang Gyamco, the Natang Sutra Printing House was established to print Gangyur during the reign of Emperor Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). Thirteen volumes or Mahaprajna-paramita-sutra were printed and kept in the Natang Monastery. Before long, however, the sutra printing house could hardly go on due to financial problems. When Pholhanas was in charge of the Tibetan administration, he resumed printing of the Tripitaka at Natang. Legend has it that he bought high quality wood from Moinyu in Shannan and Gyirong, trained block carvers and organized scholars to collate and print Tripitaka on the basis of the Dangyur and Gangyur Buton Rinchengdrub had collected and kept in the Xalhu Monastery. About 1,000 people took part in the huge project. More than 50,000 blocks were carved from August 1730 to January 1732 for the printing of 102 volumes of Gangyur. Then in 1741-42, Pholhanas organized people to carve 70,000 blocks for the printing of the 225-volume Dangyur, thus finishing this most gigantic project. The Gangyur and Dangyur printed in this way became known as the Natang edition of the Tripitaka.

　　The Dege Sutra Print House, located in the Gengqing Monastery in Dege of northern Sichuan Province, was built by headman Qugu Dainba Cering and his son in 16 years during the reign of Emperor Yongzheng of the Qing Dynasty. Surrounded by vermilion walls and shaded by green trees, it looks very beautiful and spectacular. The Dege Sutra Printing House is known for its rich collections with all sects of Buddhism. Qugu Dainba Cering, though a follower of the Nyingma (Red) Sect, never discriminated against the classics of other Buddhist sects. This makes his sutra printing house different from others. The Dege Sutra Printing House stipulated that all the Tripitaka must be printed in vermilion ink to show respect, while the remaining Buddhist classics be printed in black ink.

　　Since Dege was peacefully liberated in 1950, the Dege Sutra Printing House has received due protection from the Central Government. In 1980, it underwent renovation and was listed as a cultural relics unit subject to provincial protection. It began to resume its carved printing in early 1982, and published more than 6,200 volumes of the Tibetan Tripitaka: Gangyur and Dangyur in 10 years for sale at home and abroad.

　　Foreign countries also paid great attention to the spreading and study of the Tripitaka. Japan, for example, once made photomechanical printing of the Beijing edition of the Tibetan Tripitaka 40 years ago, and this became an international practice copy. In 1982, Japan used photo offset to publish the Dege edition of Tibetan Tripitaka.